Defining Hegemonic Masculinity
Hegemonic Masculinity as a notion has evolved in the gender studies discourse since the 1980s. From Raewyn Connell’s conceptualisation of hegemonic masculinity to a more contemporary approach by Jewkes and Morrell (2012), the concept has undergone a variety of changes, criticisms and debates. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the concept of hegemonic masculinity gained prominence in the emerging field of gender and masculinity studies, with conferences, textbooks, journals, and interdisciplinary research. It was applied in education to analyse classroom dynamics, curriculum challenges, and teacher strategies. In criminology, it helped theorise the link between different masculinities and various types of crimes, including white-collar crime.
Hegemonic masculinity is a system of socially constructed ideals of masculinity crafted by individuals in positions of authority that serve the dual purpose of inclusion and exclusion while structuring society in a manner that perpetuates gender inequality. This system encompasses various components, including a hierarchy of male identities, which can manifest in several ways. For instance, within this hierarchy, traditional notions of masculinity often place characteristics such as physical strength, emotional stoicism, and assertiveness at the forefront, thereby establishing a hierarchical structure where these traits are deemed superior. Conversely, qualities that are associated with vulnerability, sensitivity, or non-conformity to traditional masculine norms may be marginalised or stigmatised within this framework. To varying degrees, hegemonic masculinity is shaped as a gender identity that is defined by its contrast to both ‘not being gay’ and ‘not being female.'(Jewkes, Morrell., Hearn, et al., 2015).
Other components can manifest through disparities in access to power among men (over both women and other men), and the intricate dynamics between men’s self-concept, their aspirational ideals, interpersonal interactions, the exercise of power, along with the overarching influence of patriarchy.
Understanding the Diverse and Contextual Nature of Masculinities
It’s important to note that hegemonic positions don’t represent the sole expressions of masculinity within a given society. These positions can also be viewed as context-dependent, meaning that the roles, behaviours, and values associated with one position may differ from those in another context. In reality, a complex and diverse array of masculinities exists, each shaped by the unique blend of an individual’s personality, life experiences, and cultural heritage. These diverse expressions of masculinity often intertwine with other facets of one’s identity, including race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status. This interplay creates a rich tapestry of male identities, highlighting the multifaceted nature of what it means to be a man in our society.
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Another essential aspect of establishing hegemonic masculinity revolves around the concept of heterosexuality. Within the paradigm of hegemonic masculinity, there is a prevailing assumption that heterosexuality constitutes the default standard, with expressions of masculinity intricately linked to conventions and expectations associated with heterosexual relationships and norms.
Hegemonic Masculinity Can Affect Men Too
The relationship between gender norms, social collectives, and individuals is intricate, with each exerting varying influences over time. Hegemonic masculinity is typically employed as a concept to elucidate how societal institutions and groups legitimise specific forms of masculinity. It proves valuable in interventions targeting social norms related to masculinity by surfacing and potentially altering values, attitudes, and behaviours when working with individual men or groups. Moreover, there’s ongoing discourse on the adverse impact of hegemonic masculinity on men themselves. This system, maintaining men’s dominance over women and fostering competitive relations among men, can detrimentally affect men’s health and overall well-being and can increase violence as a result. Consequently, shifting hegemonic masculinity can yield benefits for both men and women.
Hegemonic Femininity
Hegemonic femininity, theoretically, refers to the dominant, socially constructed ideal of femininity within a given society or cultural context. It represents a set of cultural norms, values, and expectations that prescribe how women should behave and what attributes they should embody to conform to the prevailing feminine ideal. This concept, analogous to hegemonic masculinity, highlights the way societal norms shape and influence gender roles and identities.
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Hegemonic femininity refers to an often-overlooked aspect of gender theory, where the role of femininity in social domination is explored. This concept sheds light on women who inhabit societal positions where power and privilege tend to converge. However, the masculinities literature has had a complex relationship with the notion of hegemonic femininity. It is argued that unlike the dominant form of masculinity among men, there is no single femininity that can be considered hegemonic.
Two distinct traditions have been instrumental in theorising femininities. The first, influenced by R. W. Connell, centres on the “gender order” and delves into how hegemonic masculinities relate to complementary “emphasised femininities,” essentially ensuring women’s passive compliance in upholding established gender norms. On the other hand, Patricia Hill Collins’s intersectional perspective, grounded in the “matrix of domination,” focuses on the relative privileges associated with those embodying “hegemonic femininity.”
This perspective looks beyond gender alone and highlights how this social position actively contributes to the perpetuation of inequality by reinforcing various axes of oppression. Clarifying these distinctions is crucial, as they are often overlooked and carry significant implications for understanding power dynamics in society.
Intersecting Traditions: Feminist Sociology and the Complexities of Gender
While originating independently, both these traditions have significantly influenced contemporary feminist sociology. They view gender, race, and various social inequalities as products shaped and perpetuated through larger-scale processes like colonisation, globalisation, organisational structures, cultural beliefs, social interactions, and individual socialisation. The most culturally esteemed form of femininity, referred to as “emphasised,” revolves around compliance with subordination and aligning with men’s desires, indicating passive adherence to established gender roles. This perspective, primarily in earlier iterations, depicted femininity as a static counterpart to active and dominant masculinities due to its narrow focus solely on gender dynamics.
Femininity can play a hegemonic role by legitimising multiple forms of unequal power dynamics, extending beyond just gender, as suggested by Connell’s concept of the gender order. Scholars adopting an intersectional perspective also argue that hegemonic femininities encompass various privileges like whiteness, wealth, heterosexuality, cisgender identity, nationality, citizenship, youth, and ability status, which are deeply ingrained.
In summary, both hegemonic masculinity and femininity can involve legitimising unequal power structures that go beyond gender, encompassing various forms of privilege. These concepts are crucial for understanding how societal norms and power dynamics operate.
Bibliography
Connell, R. W., and James W. Messerschmidt. “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept.” Gender and Society 19, no. 6 (2005): 829–59. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27640853
Hamilton, Laura T., Elizabeth A. Armstrong, J. Lotus Seeley, and Elizabeth M. Armstrong. “Hegemonic Femininities and Intersectional Domination.” Sociological Theory 37, no. 4 (2019): 315–41. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26870430
Jewkes R., Morrell R. Sexuality and the Limits of Agency among South African Teenage Women: Theorising Femininities and Their Connections to HIV Risk Practices. Social Science & Medicine 74, no. 11 (2012): 1729–1737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.05.020
Jewkes, R., Morrell, R., Hearn, J., Lundqvist, E., Blackbeard, D., Lindegger, G., Quayle, M., Sikweyiya, Y., & Gottzén, L. . Hegemonic masculinity: combining theory and practice in gender interventions. Culture, health & sexuality 17, (2015): 112–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2015.1085094
Authorship Credits
Paarth Pande is a liberal arts graduate from Symbiosis University, Pune and a research intern at Mandonna.
